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Facilitation

Diamond of Participatory Decision-Making (Kaner)

The Diamond from Sam Kaner and colleagues maps how a group moves from divergent thinking, through the 'Groan Zone' of misunderstanding, to convergent thinking and decision. It normalises the messy middle of group work and gives facilitators tools for each zone.

5 phasesFacilitation
When to Use This Framework

When a few voices dominate or quieter people don't contribute

Your group discussions aren't balanced, you need better ways to include everyone, or conversations go in circles.

When a group must make a decision that needs real buy-in on a complex or contested issue, and the facilitator wants to explain why the process feels messy.

The 5 Steps
Follow this sequence to apply Diamond of Participatory Decision-Making (Kaner)
1

Business as usual

The group starts with familiar opinions and quick solutions. The facilitator notices when an issue needs more than a fast decision.

2

Divergent zone

Open up: generate options, surface diverse perspectives and suspend judgement. Use tools such as brainstorming and go-rounds.

3

Groan zone

Confusion and frustration as people try to understand unfamiliar views. The facilitator normalises the discomfort and helps build shared understanding.

4

Convergent zone

Narrow down: evaluate options, refine proposals and look for inclusive solutions.

5

Closure

Reach a decision using a decision rule agreed in advance, and confirm next steps.

What You'll Achieve

Ensures every voice is heard and the group's collective intelligence is unlocked.

Use the diamond to sequence a decision session: plan separate blocks for divergence and convergence, and build in time and activities for the groan zone rather than skipping it. Agree the decision rule before closure.

Practical Tips
How to get the most out of this framework
  • 1
    Use structured turn-taking to balance voices
  • 2
    Start with individual reflection before group discussion
  • 3
    Create safe spaces for minority opinions
  • 4
    Summarize and synthesize regularly
Best For
  • Strategy and planning meetings
  • Multi-stakeholder decisions
  • Teams stuck in repeated debate
  • Teaching groups how facilitation works
Key Principles
  • Separate divergent and convergent thinking
  • The groan zone is normal and productive
  • Full participation leads to sustainable agreements
  • Build mutual understanding before deciding
Watch Out For
  • A map of group dynamics, not a step-by-step method; it needs tools from the same book or elsewhere for each zone.
  • Groups under time pressure often cut the groan zone, which can produce weak or unsupported decisions.
  • Works best when the decision rule and the group's authority are clear from the start.
Related Frameworks
Other Facilitation frameworks you might find useful
Belbin Team RolesThe Belbin Team Roles framework identifies nine distinct behavioral clusters that contribute to effective team performance. By understanding these roles, facilitators can build balanced teams, leverage individual strengths, and mitigate potential weaknesses to enhance collaboration and achieve team objectives.
Liberating StructuresA repertoire of more than 30 simple interaction patterns, such as 1-2-4-All, Troika Consulting and 15% Solutions, that replace presentations and open discussion with structured formats where everyone contributes. Each structure is specified by five design elements: invitation, space and materials, distribution of participation, group configuration, and steps and timing.
Six Thinking HatsEdward de Bono's method of 'parallel thinking' in which a whole group adopts the same mode of thinking at the same time, signalled by six coloured hats: facts, feelings, caution, benefits, creativity and process. It reduces adversarial debate because everyone looks at the issue from the same angle before switching.