Model I and Model II
Model I and Model II are contrasting theories-in-use developed by Chris Argyris to describe how individuals typically behave in challenging situations. Model I is characterized by defensiveness and unilateral control, while Model II emphasizes collaboration, open communication, and mutual learning.
When a few voices dominate or quieter people don't contribute
Your group discussions aren't balanced, you need better ways to include everyone, or conversations go in circles.
This framework is particularly useful in situations where there is conflict, mistrust, or resistance to change. It can be applied in team-building exercises, leadership development programs, and conflict resolution workshops.
Ensures every voice is heard and the group's collective intelligence is unlocked.
Facilitators can use this framework to help participants identify and address their own Model I behaviors, and to develop more effective Model II approaches. Activities can be designed to promote active listening, empathy, and constructive feedback, fostering a more collaborative and learning-oriented environment.
- 1Use structured turn-taking to balance voices
- 2Start with individual reflection before group discussion
- 3Create safe spaces for minority opinions
- 4Summarize and synthesize regularly
- Improving interpersonal communication
- Building trust and collaboration
- Reducing defensiveness
- Promoting shared leadership
- Valid information
- Free and informed choice
- Internal commitment
- Shared control and mutual influence
- Open communication and public testing of assumptions
- Requires a safe and supportive environment for participants to be vulnerable and honest
- Can be challenging for individuals to relinquish control and embrace collaboration
- Facilitator needs to be skilled in guiding difficult conversations and promoting empathy